{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 85,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from urllib.request import urlopen\n",
    "from bs4 import BeautifulSoup\n",
    "\n",
    "html = urlopen('http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)')\n",
    "bs = BeautifulSoup(html, 'html.parser')\n",
    "content = bs.find('div', {'id':'mw-content-text'}).find_all('p')\n",
    "content = [p.get_text() for p in content]\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 86,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "content = ''.join(content)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 87,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "\n",
      "\n",
      "Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation via the off-side rule.[34]\n",
      "Python is dynamically typed and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured (particularly procedural), object-oriented and functional programming. It is often described as a \"batteries included\" language due to its comprehensive standard library.[35][36]\n",
      "Guido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC programming language and first released it in 1991 as Python 0.9.0.[37] Python 2.0 was released in 2000. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision not completely backward-compatible with earlier versions. Python 2.7.18, released in 2020, was the last release of Python 2.[38]\n",
      "Python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming languages.[39][40][41][42]\n",
      "Python was conceived in the late 1980s[43] by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC programming language, which was inspired by SETL,[44] capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system.[13] Its implementation began in December 1989.[45] Van Rossum shouldered sole responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he announced his \"permanent vacation\" from his responsibilities as Python's \"benevolent dictator for life\", a title the Python community bestowed upon him to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-maker.[46] In January 2019, active Python core developers elected a five-member Steering Council to lead the project.[47][48]\n",
      "Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, with many major new features such as list comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage collection, reference counting, and Unicode support.[49] Python 3.0, released on 3 December 2008, with many of its major features backported to Python 2.6.x[50] and 2.7.x. Releases of Python 3 include the 2to3 utility, which automates the translation of Python 2 code to Python 3.[51]\n",
      "Python 2.7's end-of-life was initially set for 2015, then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3.[52][53] No further security patches or other improvements will be released for it.[54][55] Currently only 3.7 and later are supported. In 2021, Python 3.9.2 and 3.8.8 were expedited[56] as all versions of Python (including 2.7[57]) had security issues leading to possible remote code execution[58] and web cache poisoning.[59]\n",
      "In 2022, Python 3.10.4 and 3.9.12 were expedited[60] and 3.8.13, and 3.7.13, because of many security issues.[61] When Python 3.9.13 was released in May 2022, it was announced that the 3.9 series (joining the older series 3.8 and 3.7) would only receive security fixes in the future.[62] On September 7, 2022, four new releases were made due to a potential denial-of-service attack: 3.10.7, 3.9.14, 3.8.14, and 3.7.14.[63][64]\n",
      "As of November 2022,[update] Python 3.11 is the stable release. Notable changes from 3.10 include increased program execution speed and improved error reporting.[65]\n",
      "Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented programming and structured programming are fully supported, and many of their features support functional programming and aspect-oriented programming (including metaprogramming[66] and metaobjects).[67] Many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract[68][69] and logic programming.[70]\n",
      "Python uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting garbage collector for memory management.[71] It uses dynamic name resolution (late binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution.\n",
      "Its design offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. It has filter,mapandreduce functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets, and generator expressions.[72] The standard library has two modules (itertools and functools) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML.[73]\n",
      "Its core philosophy is summarized in the document The Zen of Python (PEP 20), which includes aphorisms such as:[74]\n",
      "Rather than building all of its functionality into its core, Python was designed to be highly extensible via modules. This compact modularity has made it particularly popular as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum's vision of a small core language with a large standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with ABC, which espoused the opposite approach.[43]\n",
      "Python strives for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar while giving developers a choice in their coding methodology. In contrast to Perl's \"there is more than one way to do it\" motto, Python embraces a \"there should be one—and preferably only one—obvious way to do it\"  philosophy.[74] Alex Martelli, a Fellow at the Python Software Foundation and Python book author, wrote: \"To describe something as 'clever' is not considered a compliment in the Python culture.\"[75]\n",
      "Python's developers strive to avoid premature optimization and reject patches to non-critical parts of the CPython reference implementation that would offer marginal increases in speed at the cost of clarity.[76] When speed is important, a Python programmer can move time-critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C; or use PyPy, a just-in-time compiler. Cython is also available, which translates a Python script into C and makes direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.\n",
      "Python's developers aim for it to be fun to use. This is reflected in its name—a tribute to the British comedy group Monty Python[77]—and in occasionally playful approaches to tutorials and reference materials, such as the use of the terms \"spam\" and \"eggs\" (a reference to a Monty Python sketch) in examples, instead of the often-used \"foo\" and \"bar\".[78][79]\n",
      "A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which has a wide range of meanings related to program style. \"Pythonic\" code may use Python idioms well, be natural or show fluency in the language, or conform with Python's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability. Code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough transcription from another programming language is called unpythonic.[80][81]\n",
      "Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered and often uses English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Unlike many other languages, it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements are allowed but rarely used. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.[82]\n",
      "Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to delimit blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block.[83] Thus, the program's visual structure accurately represents its semantic structure.[84] This feature is sometimes termed the off-side rule. Some other languages use indentation this way; but in most, indentation has no semantic meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.[85]\n",
      "Python's statements include:\n",
      "The assignment statement (=) binds a name as a reference to a separate, dynamically allocated object. Variables may subsequently be rebound at any time to any object. In Python, a variable name is a generic reference holder without a fixed data type; however, it always refers to some object with a type. This is called dynamic typing—in contrast to statically-typed languages, where each variable may contain only a value of a certain type.\n",
      "Python does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations, and, according to Van Rossum, it never will.[88][89] However, better support for coroutine-like functionality is provided by extending Python's generators.[90] Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators; data was passed unidirectionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5 on, it is possible to pass data back into a generator function; and from version 3.3, it can be passed through multiple stack levels.[91]\n",
      "Python's expressions include:\n",
      "In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby. This leads to duplicating some functionality. For example:\n",
      "Statements cannot be a part of an expression—so list and other comprehensions or lambda expressions, all being expressions, cannot contain statements. A particular case is that an assignment statement such as a = 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement. This has the advantage of avoiding a classic C error of mistaking an assignment operator = for an equality operator == in conditions: if (c = 1) { ...} is syntactically valid (but probably unintended) C code, but if c = 1: ... causes a syntax error in Python.\n",
      "Methods on objects are functions attached to the object's class; the syntax instance.method(argument) is, for normal methods and functions, syntactic sugar for Class.method(instance, argument). Python methods have an explicit self parameter to access instance data, in contrast to the implicit self (or this) in some other object-oriented programming languages (e.g., C++, Java, Objective-C, Ruby).[100] Python also provides methods, often called dunder methods (due to their names beginning and ending with double-underscores), to allow user-defined classes to modify how they are handled by native operations including length, comparison, in arithmetic operations and type conversion.[101]\n",
      "Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints are not checked at compile time; rather, operations on an object may fail, signifying that it is not of a suitable type. Despite being dynamically typed, Python is strongly typed, forbidding operations that are not well-defined (for example, adding a number to a string) rather than silently attempting to make sense of them.\n",
      "Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes, most often used for object-oriented programming. New instances of classes are constructed by calling the class (for example, SpamClass() or EggsClass()), and the classes are instances of the metaclass type (itself an instance of itself), allowing metaprogramming and reflection.\n",
      "Before version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes (both using the same syntax): old-style and new-style,[102] current Python versions only support the semantics new style.\n",
      "Python supports gradual typing.[103] Python's syntax allows specifying static types, but they are not checked in the default implementation, CPython. An experimental optional static type-checker, mypy, supports compile-time type checking.[104]\n",
      "1.33333\n",
      "Python has the usual symbols for arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /), the floor division operator // and the modulo operation % (where the remainder can be negative,  e.g. 4 % -3 == -2). It also has ** for exponentiation, e.g. 5**3 == 125 and 9**0.5 == 3.0, and a matrix‑multiplication operator @ .[108] These operators work like in traditional math; with the same precedence rules, the operators infix (+ and - can also be unary to represent positive and negative numbers respectively).\n",
      "The division between integers produces floating-point results. The behavior of division has changed significantly over time:[109]\n",
      "In Python terms, / is true division (or simply division), and // is floor division. / before version 3.0 is classic division.[109]\n",
      "Rounding towards negative infinity, though different from most languages, adds consistency. For instance, it means that the equation (a + b)//b == a//b + 1 is always true. It also means that the equation b*(a//b) + a%b == a is valid for both positive and negative values of a. However, maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the result of a%b is, as expected, in the half-open interval [0, b), where b is a positive integer, it has to lie in the interval (b, 0] when b is negative.[110]\n",
      "Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-breaking, Python 3 uses round to even: round(1.5) and round(2.5) both produce 2.[111] Versions before 3 used round-away-from-zero: round(0.5) is 1.0, round(-0.5) is −1.0.[112]\n",
      "Python allows boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is consistent with general use in mathematics. For example, the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c.[113] C-derived languages interpret this expression differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a < b, resulting in 0 or 1, and that result would then be compared with c.[114]\n",
      "Python uses arbitrary-precision arithmetic for all integer operations. The Decimal type/class in the decimal module provides decimal floating-point numbers to a pre-defined arbitrary precision and several rounding modes.[115] The Fraction class in the fractions module provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers.[116]\n",
      "Due to Python's extensive mathematics library, and the third-party library NumPy that further extends the native capabilities, it is frequently used as a scientific scripting language to aid in problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation.[117][118]\n",
      "Hello world program:\n",
      "Program to calculate the factorial of a positive integer:\n",
      "Python's large standard library[119] provides tools suited to many tasks and is commonly cited as one of its greatest strengths. For Internet-facing applications, many standard formats and protocols such as MIME and HTTP are supported. It includes modules for creating graphical user interfaces, connecting to relational databases, generating pseudorandom numbers, arithmetic with arbitrary-precision decimals,[120] manipulating regular expressions, and unit testing.\n",
      "Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications—for example, the Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333[121]—but most are specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suites. However, because most of the standard library is cross-platform Python code, only a few modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations.\n",
      "As of 14 November 2022,[update] the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository for third-party Python software, contains over 415,000[122] packages with a wide range of functionality, including:\n",
      "Most Python implementations (including CPython) include a read–eval–print loop (REPL), permitting them to function as a command line interpreter for which users enter statements sequentially and receive results immediately.\n",
      "Python also comes with an Integrated development environment (IDE) called IDLE, which is more beginner-oriented.\n",
      "Other shells, including IDLE and IPython, add further abilities such as improved auto-completion, session state retention, and syntax highlighting.\n",
      "As well as standard desktop integrated development environments, there are Web browser-based IDEs, including SageMath, for developing science- and math-related programs; PythonAnywhere, a browser-based IDE and hosting environment; and Canopy IDE, a commercial IDE emphasizing scientific computing.[123]\n",
      "CPython is the reference implementation of Python. It is written in C, meeting the C89 standard (Python 3.11 uses C11[124]) with several select C99 features. CPython includes its own C extensions, but third-party extensions are not limited to older C versions—e.g. they can be implemented with C11 or C++.[125][126]) It compiles Python programs into an intermediate bytecode[127] which is then executed by its virtual machine.[128] CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and native Python, and is available for many platforms, including Windows (starting with Python 3.9, the Python installer deliberately fails to install on Windows 7 and 8;[129][130] Windows XP was supported until Python 3.5) and most modern Unix-like systems, including macOS (and Apple M1 Macs, since Python 3.9.1, with experimental installer) and unofficial support for e.g. VMS.[131] Platform portability was one of its earliest priorities.[132] (During Python 1 and 2 development, even OS/2 and Solaris were supported,[133] but support has since been dropped for many platforms.)\n",
      "Other just-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:\n",
      "There are several compilers to high-level object languages, with either unrestricted Python, a restricted subset of Python, or a language similar to Python as the source language:\n",
      "Specialized:\n",
      "Older projects (or not to be used with Python 3.x and latest syntax):\n",
      "Performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non-numerical (combinatorial) workload was presented at EuroSciPy '13.[157] Python's performance compared to other programming languages is also benchmarked by The Computer Language Benchmarks Game.[158]\n",
      "Python's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) process, the primary mechanism for proposing major new features, collecting community input on issues, and documenting Python design decisions.[159] Python coding style is covered in PEP 8.[160] Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented on by the Python community and the steering council.[159]\n",
      "Enhancement of the language corresponds with the development of the CPython reference implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for the language's development. Specific issues were originally discussed in the Roundup bug tracker hosted at by the foundation.[161] In 2022, all issues and discussions were migrated to GitHub.[162] Development originally took place on a self-hosted source-code repository running Mercurial, until Python moved to GitHub in January 2017.[163]\n",
      "CPython's public releases come in three types, distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented:\n",
      "Many alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews and for testing before final releases. Although there is a rough schedule for each release, they are often delayed if the code is not ready. Python's development team monitors the state of the code by running the large unit test suite during development.[169]\n",
      "The major academic conference on Python is PyCon. There are also special Python mentoring programs, such as Pyladies.\n",
      "Python 3.10 deprecated wstr (to be removed in Python 3.12; meaning Python extensions[170] need to be modified by then),[171] and added pattern matching to the language.[172]\n",
      "Tools that can generate documentation for Python API include pydoc (available as part of the standard library), Sphinx, Pdoc and its forks, Doxygen and Graphviz, among others.[173]\n",
      "Python's name is derived from the British comedy group Monty Python, whom Python creator Guido van Rossum enjoyed while developing the language. Monty Python references appear frequently in Python code and culture;[174] for example, the metasyntactic variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs instead of the traditional foo and bar.[174][175] The official Python documentation also contains various references to Monty Python routines.[176][177]\n",
      "The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python. Examples of the use of this prefix in names of Python applications or libraries include Pygame, a binding of SDL to Python (commonly used to create games); PyQt and PyGTK, which bind Qt and GTK to Python respectively; and PyPy, a Python implementation originally written in Python.\n",
      "Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming languages in the TIOBE Programming Community Index where as of December 2022[update] it was the most popular language (ahead of C, C++, and Java).[41] It was selected Programming Language of the Year (for \"the highest rise in ratings in a year\") in 2007, 2010, 2018, and 2020 (the only language to have done so four times as of 2020[178]).\n",
      "An empirical study found that scripting languages, such as Python, are more productive than conventional languages, such as C and Java, for programming problems involving string manipulation and search in a dictionary, and determined that memory consumption was often \"better than Java and not much worse than C or C++\".[179]\n",
      "Large organizations that use Python include Wikipedia, Google,[180] Yahoo!,[181] CERN,[182] NASA,[183] Facebook,[184] Amazon, Instagram,[185] Spotify,[186] and some smaller entities like ILM[187] and ITA.[188] The social news networking site Reddit was written mostly in Python.[189]\n",
      "Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications, e.g., via mod_wsgi for the Apache webserver.[190] With Web Server Gateway Interface, a standard API has evolved to facilitate these applications. Web frameworks like Django, Pylons, Pyramid, TurboGears, web2py, Tornado, Flask, Bottle, and Zope support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications. Pyjs and IronPython can be used to develop the client-side of Ajax-based applications. SQLAlchemy can be used as a data mapper to a relational database. Twisted is a framework to program communications between computers, and is used (for example) by Dropbox.\n",
      "Libraries such as NumPy, SciPy, and Matplotlib allow the effective use of Python in scientific computing,[191][192] with specialized libraries such as Biopython and Astropy providing domain-specific functionality. SageMath is a computer algebra system with a notebook interface programmable in Python: its library covers many aspects of mathematics, including algebra, combinatorics, numerical mathematics, number theory, and calculus.[193] OpenCV has Python bindings with a rich set of features for computer vision and image processing.[194]\n",
      "Python is commonly used in artificial intelligence projects and machine learning projects with the help of libraries like TensorFlow, Keras, Pytorch, and scikit-learn.[195][196][197][198] As a scripting language with a modular architecture, simple syntax, and rich text processing tools, Python is often used for natural language processing.[199]\n",
      "Python can also be used to create games, with libraries such as Pygame, which can make 2D games.\n",
      "Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language, including in finite element method software such as Abaqus, 3D parametric modelers like FreeCAD, 3D animation packages such as 3ds Max, Blender, Cinema 4D, Lightwave, Houdini, Maya, modo, MotionBuilder, Softimage, the visual effects compositor Nuke, 2D imaging programs like GIMP,[200] Inkscape, Scribus and Paint Shop Pro,[201] and musical notation programs like scorewriter and capella. GNU Debugger uses Python as a pretty printer to show complex structures such as C++ containers. Esri promotes Python as the best choice for writing scripts in ArcGIS.[202] It has also been used in several video games,[203][204] and has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in Google App Engine, the other two being Java and Go.[205]\n",
      "Many operating systems include Python as a standard component. It ships with most Linux distributions,[206] AmigaOS 4 (using Python 2.7), FreeBSD (as a package), NetBSD, and OpenBSD (as a package) and can be used from the command line (terminal). Many Linux distributions use installers written in Python: Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer, while Red Hat Linux and Fedora Linux use the Anaconda installer. Gentoo Linux uses Python in its package management system, Portage.\n",
      "Python is used extensively in the information security industry, including in exploit development.[207][208]\n",
      "Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO, developed at Sugar Labs since 2008, is written in Python.[209] The Raspberry Pi single-board computer project has adopted Python as its main user-programming language.\n",
      "LibreOffice includes Python and intends to replace Java with Python. Its Python Scripting Provider is a core feature[210] since Version 4.0 from 7 February 2013.\n",
      "Python's design and philosophy have influenced many other programming languages:\n",
      "Python's development practices have also been emulated by other languages. For example, the practice of requiring a document describing the rationale for, and issues surrounding, a change to the language (in Python, a PEP) is also used in Tcl,[222] Erlang,[223] and Swift.[224]\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(content)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 102,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import re\n",
    "import string \n",
    "import unicodedata\n",
    "\n",
    "# Must be called before split_sentences\n",
    "def replace_newlines(text):\n",
    "    return text.replace('\\n', ' ')\n",
    "\n",
    "def make_lowercase(text):\n",
    "    return text.lower()\n",
    "\n",
    "CITATION_REGEX = re.compile('\\[[0-9]*\\]')\n",
    "def strip_citations(text):\n",
    "    return re.sub(CITATION_REGEX, '', text)\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "def split_sentences(text):\n",
    "    return [s.strip() for s in text.split('. ')]\n",
    "\n",
    "PARENS_REGEX = re.compile('\\([a-z A-Z \\+\\.,\\-]{0,100}\\)')\n",
    "def remove_parentheses(text):\n",
    "    return re.sub(PARENS_REGEX, '', text)\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "DESCRIPTION_REGEX = re.compile('\\n[a-z A-Z]*:')\n",
    "def remove_descriptions(text):\n",
    "    return re.sub(DESCRIPTION_REGEX, '', text)\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "puncts = [re.escape(c) for c in string.punctuation]\n",
    "PUNCTUATION_REGEX = re.compile('|'.join(puncts))\n",
    "def remove_punctuation(text):\n",
    "    return re.sub(PUNCTUATION_REGEX, '', text)\n",
    "\n",
    "def normalize(text):\n",
    "    return unicodedata.normalize('NFKD', text)\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 103,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['python is a highlevel generalpurpose programming language', 'its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation via the offside rule', 'python is dynamically typed and garbagecollected', 'it supports multiple programming paradigms including structured  objectoriented and functional programming', 'it is often described as a batteries included language due to its comprehensive standard library', 'guido van rossum began working on python in the late 1980s as a successor to the abc programming language and first released it in 1991 as python 090', 'python 20 was released in 2000', 'python 30 released in 2008 was a major revision not completely backwardcompatible with earlier versions', 'python 2718 released in 2020 was the last release of python 2', 'python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming languages', 'python was conceived in the late 1980s by guido van rossum at centrum wiskunde  informatica  in the netherlands as a successor to the abc programming language which was inspired by setl capable of exception handling and interfacing with the amoeba operating system', 'its implementation began in december 1989', 'van rossum shouldered sole responsibility for the project as the lead developer until 12 july 2018 when he announced his permanent vacation from his responsibilities as pythons benevolent dictator for life a title the python community bestowed upon him to reflect his longterm commitment as the projects chief decisionmaker', 'in january 2019 active python core developers elected a fivemember steering council to lead the project', 'python 20 was released on 16 october 2000 with many major new features such as list comprehensions cycledetecting garbage collection reference counting and unicode support', 'python 30 released on 3 december 2008 with many of its major features backported to python 26x and 27x', 'releases of python 3 include the 2to3 utility which automates the translation of python 2 code to python 3', 'python 27s endoflife was initially set for 2015 then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forwardported to python 3', 'no further security patches or other improvements will be released for it', 'currently only 37 and later are supported', 'in 2021 python 392 and 388 were expedited as all versions of python including 27 had security issues leading to possible remote code execution and web cache poisoning', 'in 2022 python 3104 and 3912 were expedited and 3813 and 3713 because of many security issues', 'when python 3913 was released in may 2022 it was announced that the 39 series joining the older series 38 and 37 would only receive security fixes in the future', 'on september 7 2022 four new releases were made due to a potential denialofservice attack 3107 3914 3814 and 3714', 'as of november 2022update python 311 is the stable release', 'notable changes from 310 include increased program execution speed and improved error reporting', 'python is a multiparadigm programming language', 'objectoriented programming and structured programming are fully supported and many of their features support functional programming and aspectoriented programming', 'many other paradigms are supported via extensions including design by contract and logic programming', 'python uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycledetecting garbage collector for memory management', 'it uses dynamic name resolution  which binds method and variable names during program execution', 'its design offers some support for functional programming in the lisp tradition', 'it has filtermapandreduce functions list comprehensions dictionaries sets and generator expressions', 'the standard library has two modules  that implement functional tools borrowed from haskell and standard ml', 'its core philosophy is summarized in the document the zen of python pep 20 which includes aphorisms such as rather than building all of its functionality into its core python was designed to be highly extensible via modules', 'this compact modularity has made it particularly popular as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications', 'van rossums vision of a small core language with a large standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with abc which espoused the opposite approach', 'python strives for a simpler lesscluttered syntax and grammar while giving developers a choice in their coding methodology', 'in contrast to perls there is more than one way to do it motto python embraces a there should be one—and preferably only one—obvious way to do it  philosophy', 'alex martelli a fellow at the python software foundation and python book author wrote to describe something as clever is not considered a compliment in the python culture pythons developers strive to avoid premature optimization and reject patches to noncritical parts of the cpython reference implementation that would offer marginal increases in speed at the cost of clarity', 'when speed is important a python programmer can move timecritical functions to extension modules written in languages such as c or use pypy a justintime compiler', 'cython is also available which translates a python script into c and makes direct clevel api calls into the python interpreter', 'pythons developers aim for it to be fun to use', 'this is reflected in its name—a tribute to the british comedy group monty python—and in occasionally playful approaches to tutorials and reference materials such as the use of the terms spam and eggs  in examples instead of the oftenused foo and bar', 'a common neologism in the python community is pythonic which has a wide range of meanings related to program style', 'pythonic code may use python idioms well be natural or show fluency in the language or conform with pythons minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability', 'code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough transcription from another programming language is called unpythonic', 'python is meant to be an easily readable language', 'its formatting is visually uncluttered and often uses english keywords where other languages use punctuation', 'unlike many other languages it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks and semicolons after statements are allowed but rarely used', 'it has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than c or pascal', 'python uses whitespace indentation rather than curly brackets or keywords to delimit blocks', 'an increase in indentation comes after certain statements a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block', 'thus the programs visual structure accurately represents its semantic structure', 'this feature is sometimes termed the offside rule', 'some other languages use indentation this way but in most indentation has no semantic meaning', 'the recommended indent size is four spaces', 'pythons statements include the assignment statement  binds a name as a reference to a separate dynamically allocated object', 'variables may subsequently be rebound at any time to any object', 'in python a variable name is a generic reference holder without a fixed data type however it always refers to some object with a type', 'this is called dynamic typing—in contrast to staticallytyped languages where each variable may contain only a value of a certain type', 'python does not support tail call optimization or firstclass continuations and according to van rossum it never will', 'however better support for coroutinelike functionality is provided by extending pythons generators', 'before 25 generators were lazy iterators data was passed unidirectionally out of the generator', 'from python 25 on it is possible to pass data back into a generator function and from version 33 it can be passed through multiple stack levels', 'pythons expressions include in python a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced in contrast to languages such as common lisp scheme or ruby', 'this leads to duplicating some functionality', 'for example statements cannot be a part of an expression—so list and other comprehensions or lambda expressions all being expressions cannot contain statements', 'a particular case is that an assignment statement such as a  1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement', 'this has the advantage of avoiding a classic c error of mistaking an assignment operator  for an equality operator  in conditions if c  1   is syntactically valid  c code but if c  1 ', 'causes a syntax error in python', 'methods on objects are functions attached to the objects class the syntax instancemethod is for normal methods and functions syntactic sugar for classmethod', 'python methods have an explicit self parameter to access instance data in contrast to the implicit self  in some other objectoriented programming languages', 'python also provides methods often called dunder methods  to allow userdefined classes to modify how they are handled by native operations including length comparison in arithmetic operations and type conversion', 'python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names', 'type constraints are not checked at compile time rather operations on an object may fail signifying that it is not of a suitable type', 'despite being dynamically typed python is strongly typed forbidding operations that are not welldefined  rather than silently attempting to make sense of them', 'python allows programmers to define their own types using classes most often used for objectoriented programming', 'new instances of classes are constructed by calling the class for example spamclass or eggsclass and the classes are instances of the metaclass type  allowing metaprogramming and reflection', 'before version 30 python had two kinds of classes  oldstyle and newstyle current python versions only support the semantics new style', 'python supports gradual typing', 'pythons syntax allows specifying static types but they are not checked in the default implementation cpython', 'an experimental optional static typechecker mypy supports compiletime type checking', '133333 python has the usual symbols for arithmetic operators     the floor division operator  and the modulo operation  where the remainder can be negative  eg', '4  3  2', 'it also has  for exponentiation eg', '53  125 and 905  30 and a matrix‐multiplication operator ', 'these operators work like in traditional math with the same precedence rules the operators infix', 'the division between integers produces floatingpoint results', 'the behavior of division has changed significantly over time in python terms  is true division  and  is floor division', ' before version 30 is classic division', 'rounding towards negative infinity though different from most languages adds consistency', 'for instance it means that the equation b  ab  1 is always true', 'it also means that the equation bab  ab  a is valid for both positive and negative values of a', 'however maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the result of ab is as expected in the halfopen interval 0 b where b is a positive integer it has to lie in the interval b 0 when b is negative', 'python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer', 'for tiebreaking python 3 uses round to even round15 and round25 both produce 2', 'versions before 3 used roundawayfromzero round05 is 10 round05 is −10', 'python allows boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is consistent with general use in mathematics', 'for example the expression a  b  c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c', 'cderived languages interpret this expression differently in c the expression would first evaluate a  b resulting in 0 or 1 and that result would then be compared with c', 'python uses arbitraryprecision arithmetic for all integer operations', 'the decimal typeclass in the decimal module provides decimal floatingpoint numbers to a predefined arbitrary precision and several rounding modes', 'the fraction class in the fractions module provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers', 'due to pythons extensive mathematics library and the thirdparty library numpy that further extends the native capabilities it is frequently used as a scientific scripting language to aid in problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation', 'pythons large standard library provides tools suited to many tasks and is commonly cited as one of its greatest strengths', 'for internetfacing applications many standard formats and protocols such as mime and http are supported', 'it includes modules for creating graphical user interfaces connecting to relational databases generating pseudorandom numbers arithmetic with arbitraryprecision decimals manipulating regular expressions and unit testing', 'some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications—for example the web server gateway interface  implementation wsgiref follows pep 333—but most are specified by their code internal documentation and test suites', 'however because most of the standard library is crossplatform python code only a few modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations', 'as of 14 november 2022update the python package index  the official repository for thirdparty python software contains over 415000 packages with a wide range of functionality including most python implementations  include a read–eval–print loop  permitting them to function as a command line interpreter for which users enter statements sequentially and receive results immediately', 'python also comes with an integrated development environment  called idle which is more beginneroriented', 'other shells including idle and ipython add further abilities such as improved autocompletion session state retention and syntax highlighting', 'as well as standard desktop integrated development environments there are web browserbased ides including sagemath for developing science and mathrelated programs pythonanywhere a browserbased ide and hosting environment and canopy ide a commercial ide emphasizing scientific computing', 'cpython is the reference implementation of python', 'it is written in c meeting the c89 standard python 311 uses c11 with several select c99 features', 'cpython includes its own c extensions but thirdparty extensions are not limited to older c versions—eg', 'they can be implemented with c11 or c it compiles python programs into an intermediate bytecode which is then executed by its virtual machine', 'cpython is distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of c and native python and is available for many platforms including windows starting with python 39 the python installer deliberately fails to install on windows 7 and 8 windows xp was supported until python 35 and most modern unixlike systems including macos and apple m1 macs since python 391 with experimental installer and unofficial support for eg', 'vms', 'platform portability was one of its earliest priorities', 'during python 1 and 2 development even os2 and solaris were supported but support has since been dropped for many platforms other justintime python compilers have been developed but are now unsupported there are several compilers to highlevel object languages with either unrestricted python a restricted subset of python or a language similar to python as the source language older projects or not to be used with python 3x and latest syntax performance comparison of various python implementations on a nonnumerical  workload was presented at euroscipy 13', 'pythons performance compared to other programming languages is also benchmarked by the computer language benchmarks game', 'pythons development is conducted largely through the python enhancement proposal  process the primary mechanism for proposing major new features collecting community input on issues and documenting python design decisions', 'python coding style is covered in pep 8', 'outstanding peps are reviewed and commented on by the python community and the steering council', 'enhancement of the language corresponds with the development of the cpython reference implementation', 'the mailing list pythondev is the primary forum for the languages development', 'specific issues were originally discussed in the roundup bug tracker hosted at by the foundation', 'in 2022 all issues and discussions were migrated to github', 'development originally took place on a selfhosted sourcecode repository running mercurial until python moved to github in january 2017', 'cpythons public releases come in three types distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented many alpha beta and releasecandidates are also released as previews and for testing before final releases', 'although there is a rough schedule for each release they are often delayed if the code is not ready', 'pythons development team monitors the state of the code by running the large unit test suite during development', 'the major academic conference on python is pycon', 'there are also special python mentoring programs such as pyladies', 'python 310 deprecated wstr to be removed in python 312 meaning python extensions need to be modified by then and added pattern matching to the language', 'tools that can generate documentation for python api include pydoc  sphinx pdoc and its forks doxygen and graphviz among others', 'pythons name is derived from the british comedy group monty python whom python creator guido van rossum enjoyed while developing the language', 'monty python references appear frequently in python code and culture for example the metasyntactic variables often used in python literature are spam and eggs instead of the traditional foo and bar', 'the official python documentation also contains various references to monty python routines', 'the prefix py is used to show that something is related to python', 'examples of the use of this prefix in names of python applications or libraries include pygame a binding of sdl to python  pyqt and pygtk which bind qt and gtk to python respectively and pypy a python implementation originally written in python', 'since 2003 python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming languages in the tiobe programming community index where as of december 2022update it was the most popular language', 'it was selected programming language of the year for the highest rise in ratings in a year in 2007 2010 2018 and 2020 the only language to have done so four times as of 2020', 'an empirical study found that scripting languages such as python are more productive than conventional languages such as c and java for programming problems involving string manipulation and search in a dictionary and determined that memory consumption was often better than java and not much worse than c or c', 'large organizations that use python include wikipedia google yahoo cern nasa facebook amazon instagram spotify and some smaller entities like ilm and ita', 'the social news networking site reddit was written mostly in python', 'python can serve as a scripting language for web applications eg via modwsgi for the apache webserver', 'with web server gateway interface a standard api has evolved to facilitate these applications', 'web frameworks like django pylons pyramid turbogears web2py tornado flask bottle and zope support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications', 'pyjs and ironpython can be used to develop the clientside of ajaxbased applications', 'sqlalchemy can be used as a data mapper to a relational database', 'twisted is a framework to program communications between computers and is used  by dropbox', 'libraries such as numpy scipy and matplotlib allow the effective use of python in scientific computing with specialized libraries such as biopython and astropy providing domainspecific functionality', 'sagemath is a computer algebra system with a notebook interface programmable in python its library covers many aspects of mathematics including algebra combinatorics numerical mathematics number theory and calculus', 'opencv has python bindings with a rich set of features for computer vision and image processing', 'python is commonly used in artificial intelligence projects and machine learning projects with the help of libraries like tensorflow keras pytorch and scikitlearn', 'as a scripting language with a modular architecture simple syntax and rich text processing tools python is often used for natural language processing', 'python can also be used to create games with libraries such as pygame which can make 2d games', 'python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language including in finite element method software such as abaqus 3d parametric modelers like freecad 3d animation packages such as 3ds max blender cinema 4d lightwave houdini maya modo motionbuilder softimage the visual effects compositor nuke 2d imaging programs like gimp inkscape scribus and paint shop pro and musical notation programs like scorewriter and capella', 'gnu debugger uses python as a pretty printer to show complex structures such as c containers', 'esri promotes python as the best choice for writing scripts in arcgis', 'it has also been used in several video games and has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in google app engine the other two being java and go', 'many operating systems include python as a standard component', 'it ships with most linux distributions amigaos 4 using python 27 freebsd  netbsd and openbsd  and can be used from the command line', 'many linux distributions use installers written in python ubuntu uses the ubiquity installer while red hat linux and fedora linux use the anaconda installer', 'gentoo linux uses python in its package management system portage', 'python is used extensively in the information security industry including in exploit development', 'most of the sugar software for the one laptop per child xo developed at sugar labs since 2008 is written in python', 'the raspberry pi singleboard computer project has adopted python as its main userprogramming language', 'libreoffice includes python and intends to replace java with python', 'its python scripting provider is a core feature since version 40 from 7 february 2013', 'pythons design and philosophy have influenced many other programming languages pythons development practices have also been emulated by other languages', 'for example the practice of requiring a document describing the rationale for and issues surrounding a change to the language  is also used in tcl erlang and swift', '']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "text_operations = [\n",
    "    strip_citations,\n",
    "    remove_parentheses,\n",
    "    remove_descriptions,\n",
    "    replace_newlines,\n",
    "    split_sentences,\n",
    "    make_lowercase,\n",
    "    remove_punctuation,\n",
    "    normalize\n",
    "]\n",
    "\n",
    "cleaned = content\n",
    "for op in text_operations:\n",
    "    if type(cleaned) == list:\n",
    "        cleaned = [op(c) for c in cleaned]\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        cleaned = op(cleaned)\n",
    "        \n",
    "print(cleaned)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[('web', 'scraping'), ('scraping', 'with'), ('with', 'python')]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 2,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "from urllib.request import urlopen\n",
    "from bs4 import BeautifulSoup\n",
    "\n",
    "def getNgrams(text, n):\n",
    "    text = text.split(' ')\n",
    "    return [text[i:i+n] for i in range(len(text)-n+1)]\n",
    "\n",
    "getNgrams('web scraping with python', 2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 109,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
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     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "from collections import Counter\n",
    "\n",
    "def getNgrams(text, n):\n",
    "    text = text.split(' ')\n",
    "    return [' '.join(text[i:i+n]) for i in range(len(text)-n+1)]\n",
    "\n",
    "def countNGramsFromSentences(sentences, n):\n",
    "    counts = Counter()\n",
    "    for sentence in sentences:\n",
    "        counts.update(getNgrams(sentence, n))\n",
    "    return counts\n",
    "\n",
    "counts = countNGramsFromSentences(cleaned, 2)\n",
    "print(counts.most_common())"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 110,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2814"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 110,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(counts)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import re\n",
    "\n",
    "def getNgrams(content, n):\n",
    "    content = re.sub('\\n|[[\\d+\\]]', ' ', content)\n",
    "    content = bytes(content, 'UTF-8')\n",
    "    content = content.decode('ascii', 'ignore')\n",
    "    content = content.split(' ')\n",
    "    content = [word for word in content if word != '']\n",
    "    output = []\n",
    "    for i in range(len(content)-n+1):\n",
    "        output.append(content[i:i+n])\n",
    "    return output"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
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'XLfit'], ['XLfit', 'RExcel'], ['RExcel', 'Category'], ['Category', 'Comparison'], ['Comparison', 'vteNumerical-analysis'], ['vteNumerical-analysis', 'softwareFree'], ['softwareFree', 'Advanced'], ['Advanced', 'Simulation'], ['Simulation', 'Library'], ['Library', 'ADMB'], ['ADMB', 'Chapel'], ['Chapel', 'Euler'], ['Euler', 'Fortress'], ['Fortress', 'FreeFem'], ['FreeFem', 'FreeMat'], ['FreeMat', 'Genius'], ['Genius', 'Gmsh'], ['Gmsh', 'GNU'], ['GNU', 'Octave'], ['Octave', 'gretl'], ['gretl', 'Julia'], ['Julia', 'Jupyter'], ['Jupyter', '(Julia,'], ['(Julia,', 'Python,'], ['Python,', 'R;'], ['R;', 'IPython)'], ['IPython)', 'MFEM'], ['MFEM', 'OpenFOAM'], ['OpenFOAM', 'Python'], ['Python', 'R'], ['R', 'SageMath'], ['SageMath', 'Salome'], ['Salome', 'ScicosLab'], ['ScicosLab', 'Scilab'], ['Scilab', 'X'], ['X', 'Weka'], ['Weka', 'Proprietary'], ['Proprietary', 'DADiSP'], ['DADiSP', 'FEATool'], ['FEATool', 'Multiphysics'], ['Multiphysics', 'GAUSS'], ['GAUSS', 'LabVIEW'], ['LabVIEW', 'Maple'], ['Maple', 'Mathcad'], ['Mathcad', 'Mathematica'], ['Mathematica', 'MATLAB'], ['MATLAB', 'Speakeasy'], ['Speakeasy', 'VisSim'], ['VisSim', 'Comparison'], ['Comparison', 'Authority'], ['Authority', 'control'], ['control', 'National'], ['National', 'libraries'], ['libraries', 'France'], ['France', '(data)'], ['(data)', 'Germany'], ['Germany', 'Israel'], ['Israel', 'United'], ['United', 'States'], ['States', 'Czech'], ['Czech', 'Republic'], ['Republic', 'Other'], ['Other', 'FAST'], ['FAST', 'SUDOC'], ['SUDOC', '(France)'], ['(France)', 'Retrieved'], ['Retrieved', 'from'], ['from', '\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Python_(programming_language)&oldid='], ['\"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Python_(programming_language)&oldid=', '\"']]\n",
      "2-grams count is: 12493\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "/var/folders/y6/jnf4yrtx1pg3y9tqb8fmhnrr0000gp/T/ipykernel_45564/3853174245.py:4: FutureWarning: Possible nested set at position 3\n",
      "  content = re.sub('\\n|[[\\d+\\]]', ' ', content)\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "html = urlopen('http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)')\n",
    "bs = BeautifulSoup(html, 'html.parser')\n",
    "content = bs.find('div', {'id':'mw-content-text'}).get_text()\n",
    "ngrams = getNgrams(content, 2)\n",
    "print(ngrams)\n",
    "print('2-grams count is: '+str(len(ngrams)))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from urllib.request import urlopen\n",
    "from bs4 import BeautifulSoup\n",
    "import re\n",
    "import string\n",
    "\n",
    "def cleanSentence(sentence):\n",
    "    sentence = sentence.split(' ')\n",
    "    sentence = [word.strip(string.punctuation+string.whitespace) for word in sentence]\n",
    "    sentence = [word for word in sentence if len(word) > 1 or (word.lower() == 'a' or word.lower() == 'i')]\n",
    "    return sentence\n",
    "\n",
    "def cleanInput(content):\n",
    "    content = content.upper()\n",
    "    content = re.sub('\\n|[[\\d+\\]]', ' ', content)\n",
    "    content = bytes(content, \"UTF-8\")\n",
    "    content = content.decode(\"ascii\", \"ignore\")\n",
    "    sentences = content.split('. ')\n",
    "    return [cleanSentence(sentence) for sentence in sentences]\n",
    "\n",
    "def getNgramsFromSentence(content, n):\n",
    "    output = []\n",
    "    for i in range(len(content)-n+1):\n",
    "        output.append(content[i:i+n])\n",
    "    return output\n",
    "\n",
    "def getNgrams(content, n):\n",
    "    content = cleanInput(content)\n",
    "    ngrams = []\n",
    "    for sentence in content:\n",
    "        ngrams.extend(getNgramsFromSentence(sentence, n))\n",
    "    return(ngrams)\n",
    "        \n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "9414\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "html = urlopen('http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)')\n",
    "bs = BeautifulSoup(html, 'html.parser')\n",
    "content = bs.find('div', {'id':'mw-content-text'}).get_text()\n",
    "print(len(getNgrams(content, 2)))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from collections import Counter\n",
    "\n",
    "def getNgrams(content, n):\n",
    "    content = cleanInput(content)\n",
    "    ngrams = Counter()\n",
    "    ngrams_list = []\n",
    "    for sentence in content:\n",
    "        newNgrams = [' '.join(ngram) for ngram in getNgramsFromSentence(sentence, n)]\n",
    "        ngrams_list.extend(newNgrams)\n",
    "        ngrams.update(newNgrams)\n",
    "    return(ngrams)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Counter({'FROM THE': 209, 'THE ORIGINAL': 199, 'ORIGINAL ON': 197, 'ARCHIVED FROM': 195, 'ON JUNE': 59, 'OF THE': 39, 'SOFTWARE FOUNDATION': 38, 'PYTHON SOFTWARE': 38, 'IN PYTHON': 36, 'OF PYTHON': 34, 'RETRIEVED FEBRUARY': 31, 'IN THE': 26, 'RETRIEVED MARCH': 25, 'THE PYTHON': 23, 'RETRIEVED JANUARY': 23, 'AS A': 21, 'VAN ROSSUM': 21, 'SUCH AS': 21, 'ON MAY': 20, 'RETRIEVED MAY': 19, 'RETRIEVED NOVEMBER': 19, 'IS A': 18, 'RETRIEVED APRIL': 18, 'PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE': 17, 'ON OCTOBER': 17, 'ON DECEMBER': 17, 'RETRIEVED JULY': 16, 'ON APRIL': 16, 'PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES': 15, 'RETRIEVED JUNE': 15, 'TO THE': 14, 'TO BE': 14, 'CAN BE': 14, 'BE USED': 14, 'FOR PYTHON': 14, 'PYTHON ENHANCEMENT': 14, 'RETRIEVED SEPTEMBER': 14, 'PYTHON IS': 13, 'ON MARCH': 13, 'ENHANCEMENT PROPOSALS': 13, 'RETRIEVED DECEMBER': 13, 'ON FEBRUARY': 13, 'WITH THE': 12, 'STANDARD LIBRARY': 12, 'TO PYTHON': 12, 'ON AUGUST': 12, 'ROSSUM GUIDO': 12, 'ON JANUARY': 12, 'IT IS': 11, 'OF A': 11, 'STATEMENT WHICH': 11, 'USED TO': 11, 'PYTHON INSIDER': 11, 'OTHER LANGUAGES': 10, 'ON JULY': 10, 'USE OF': 9, 'GUIDO VAN': 9, 'AS THE': 9, 'TO A': 9, 'PYTHON USES': 9, 'THE STANDARD': 9, 'PYTHON AND': 9, 'THE SAME': 9, 'RETRIEVED AUGUST': 9, 'PYTHON FOR': 9, 'ON NOVEMBER': 9, 'FREE SOFTWARE': 9, 'FOR THE': 8, 'SYNTAX AND': 8, 'FOR EXAMPLE': 8, 'PART OF': 8, 'ON THE': 8, 'AND THE': 8, 'WITH PYTHON': 8, 'PYTHON TO': 8, 'THE USE': 7, 'AND A': 7, 'WITH A': 7, 'A PYTHON': 7, 'WRITTEN IN': 7, 'IN A': 7, 'USED IN': 7, 'PYTHON A': 7, 'PYTHON HAS': 7, 'AND IS': 7, 'MACHINE LEARNING': 7, 'COMPARISON OF': 7, 'OF PROGRAMMING': 7, 'FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING': 6, 'PYTHON CODE': 6, 'DOES NOT': 6, 'BY THE': 6, 'OPERATOR FOR': 6, 'NUMBER OF': 6, 'SCRIPTING LANGUAGE': 6, 'SCIENTIFIC COMPUTING': 6, 'PEP PYTHON': 6, 'RETRIEVED OCTOBER': 6, 'INSIDER PYTHON': 6, 'STACKLESS PYTHON': 5, 'ON PYTHON': 5, 'PYTHON IN': 5, 'RELEASED IN': 5, 'HISTORY OF': 5, 'NEW FEATURES': 5, 'OF ITS': 5, 'IS THE': 5, 'OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING': 5, 'MANY OTHER': 5, 'BETTER THAN': 5, 'IS ALSO': 5, 'MONTY PYTHON': 5, 'THE LANGUAGE': 5, 'THE OPERATOR': 5, 'MAY BE': 5, 'USED AS': 5, 'ARE NOT': 5, 'CAN CONTAIN': 5, 'CONTAIN MIXED': 5, 'MIXED TYPES': 5, 'A FEW': 5, 'ARE NOW': 5, 'PYTHON AS': 5, 'A SCRIPTING': 5, 'NOW AVAILABLE': 5, 'DUE TO': 4, 'AS PYTHON': 4, 'WAS RELEASED': 4, 'MAIN ARTICLE': 4, 'PYTHON PYTHON': 4, 'LIST COMPREHENSIONS': 4, 'IT WAS': 4, 'ON SEPTEMBER': 4, 'AS OF': 4, 'THE CURRENT': 4, 'IT HAS': 4, 'IS BETTER': 4, 'RATHER THAN': 4, 'CONTRAST TO': 4, 'IS NOT': 4, 'REFERENCE IMPLEMENTATION': 4, 'LANGUAGES SUCH': 4, 'PYTHON INTERPRETER': 4, 'HAS A': 4, 'USE PYTHON': 4, 'AND SEMANTICS': 4, 'ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT': 4, 'IT ALSO': 4, 'A VALUE': 4, 'FROM A': 4, 'SIMILAR TO': 4, 'THERE ARE': 4, 'FLOOR DIVISION': 4, 'USES THE': 4, 'LIBRARIES SUCH': 4, 'THEY ARE': 4, 'PERL AND': 4, 'USE THE': 4, 'A NUMBER': 4, 'USED FOR': 4, 'SEQUENCE OF': 4, 'EXAMPLE THE': 4, 'CODE IS': 4, 'SUBSET OF': 4, 'LATEST RELEASE': 4, 'RELEASE IN': 4, 'IS USED': 4, 'IN AND': 4, 'THE VERSION': 4, 'VERSION NUMBER': 4, 'NUMBER IS': 4, 'IS INCREMENTED': 4, 'ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE': 4, 'DYNAMIC LANGUAGE': 4, 'GENERAL PYTHON': 4, 'PYTHON FAQ': 4, 'PYTHON LANGUAGE': 4, 'LANGA UKASZ': 4, \"O'REILLY MEDIA\": 4, 'PEP STYLE': 4, 'STYLE GUIDE': 4, 'GUIDE FOR': 4, 'ARCHIVED PDF': 4, 'PDF FROM': 4, 'IN SCIENCE': 4, 'NEURAL NETWORK': 4, 'DESIGN PHILOSOPHY': 3, 'THE ABC': 3, 'THE LAST': 3, 'LAST RELEASE': 3, 'ONE OF': 3, 'MOST POPULAR': 3, 'PYTHON COMMUNITY': 3, 'REFERENCE COUNTING': 3, 'MANY OF': 3, 'INCLUDE THE': 3, 'OUT OF': 3, 'A LARGE': 3, 'ARE SUPPORTED': 3, 'THAT THE': 3, 'SUPPORT FOR': 3, 'GENERATOR EXPRESSIONS': 3, 'ITS CORE': 3, 'LARGE STANDARD': 3, 'LIBRARY AND': 3, 'IN CONTRAST': 3, 'TO DO': 3, 'AT THE': 3, 'AND PYTHON': 3, 'THIS IS': 3, 'IN ITS': 3, 'THAT IS': 3, 'IS CALLED': 3, 'PYTHON SYNTAX': 3, 'EXECUTES A': 3, 'A BLOCK': 3, 'BLOCK OF': 3, 'OF CODE': 3, 'CODE BLOCK': 3, 'STATEMENT USED': 3, 'THE CLASS': 3, 'TO CREATE': 3, 'A GENERATOR': 3, 'AND ALSO': 3, 'AND FROM': 3, 'DATA TYPE': 3, 'ONLY A': 3, 'ACCORDING TO': 3, 'TO OTHER': 3, 'A STRING': 3, 'INFIX OPERATOR': 3, 'FOR MATRIX': 3, 'MATRIX MULTIPLICATION': 3, 'AS WELL': 3, 'WELL AS': 3, 'CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS': 3, 'WRITTEN AS': 3, 'CANNOT BE': 3, 'A NEW': 3, 'WHICH IS': 3, 'THAT CAN': 3, 'IN AN': 3, 'AN ASSIGNMENT': 3, 'SPAM EGGS': 3, 'PYTHON CAN': 3, 'DOUBLE QUOTE': 3, 'QUOTE MARKS': 3, 'MULTIPLE LINES': 3, 'EXPRESSIONS AND': 3, 'AND NEGATIVE': 3, 'BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS': 3, 'IS FOR': 3, 'OFTEN USED': 3, 'SAME SYNTAX': 3, 'BUILT-IN TYPES': 3, 'IMMUTABLE AN': 3, 'COMMONLY USED': 3, 'DIVISION OPERATOR': 3, 'MEANS THAT': 3, 'MODULE PROVIDES': 3, 'AND ITS': 3, 'WEB SERVER': 3, 'SERVER GATEWAY': 3, 'GATEWAY INTERFACE': 3, 'WEB FRAMEWORKS': 3, 'DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENTS': 3, 'SEE ALSO': 3, 'INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT': 3, 'PYTHON IMPLEMENTATIONS': 3, 'SCIENCE AND': 3, 'LIST OF': 3, 'COMPILES PYTHON': 3, 'PYTHON PROGRAMS': 3, 'SINCE PYTHON': 3, 'FORK OF': 3, 'OF CPYTHON': 3, 'AND AN': 3, 'HAVE BEEN': 3, 'AND SOME': 3, 'PYTHON WITH': 3, 'TO JAVASCRIPT': 3, 'COMPILES A': 3, 'A SUBSET': 3, 'THE JAVA': 3, 'ON A': 3, \"PYTHON'S DEVELOPMENT\": 3, 'ISSUES AND': 3, 'MAILING LIST': 3, 'TO GITHUB': 3, 'THESE RELEASES': 3, 'ARE ALSO': 3, 'LANGUAGES IN': 3, 'LANGUAGE FOR': 3, 'DESIGN AND': 3, 'USING PYTHON': 3, 'USES INDENTATION': 3, 'A SIMILAR': 3, 'SIMILAR SYNTAX': 3, 'LANGUAGE IN': 3, 'OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE': 3, 'DOWNLOAD PYTHON': 3, 'INTERVIEW WITH': 3, 'INTRODUCTION TO': 3, 'FOUND IN': 3, 'THE HISTORY': 3, 'STACK OVERFLOW': 3, 'ZADKA MOSHE': 3, \"WHAT'S NEW\": 3, 'NEW IN': 3, 'CVE CVE': 3, 'PYTHON AT': 3, \"PYTHON DEVELOPER'S\": 3, \"DEVELOPER'S GUIDE\": 3, 'COMPUTING IN': 3, 'GENERAL-PURPOSE PROGRAMMING': 2, 'STABLE RELEASE': 2, 'FEBRUARY DAYS': 2, 'DAYS AGO': 2, 'AGO FEBRUARY': 2, 'AND MORE': 2, 'ADA ALGOL': 2, 'ALGOL APL': 2, 'STANDARD ML': 2, 'ITS DESIGN': 2, 'DYNAMICALLY TYPED': 2, 'IS OFTEN': 2, 'BATTERIES INCLUDED': 2, 'TO ITS': 2, 'WORKING ON': 2, 'THE LATE': 2, 'A SUCCESSOR': 2, 'SUCCESSOR TO': 2, 'ABC PROGRAMMING': 2, 'LANGUAGE AND': 2, 'IN WAS': 2, 'WAS A': 2, 'A MAJOR': 2, 'WAS THE': 2, 'RELEASE OF': 2, 'AS ONE': 2, 'THE MOST': 2, 'POPULAR PROGRAMMING': 2, 'ROSSUM AT': 2, 'PYTHON WAS': 2, 'INSPIRED BY': 2, 'EXCEPTION HANDLING': 2, 'OPERATING SYSTEM': 2, 'THE PROJECT': 2, 'FROM HIS': 2, \"AS PYTHON'S\": 2, \"PYTHON'S BENEVOLENT\": 2, 'BENEVOLENT DICTATOR': 2, 'DICTATOR FOR': 2, 'FOR LIFE': 2, 'IN JANUARY': 2, 'STEERING COUNCIL': 2, 'RELEASED ON': 2, 'WITH MANY': 2, 'MAJOR NEW': 2, 'CYCLE-DETECTING GARBAGE': 2, 'COUNTING AND': 2, 'PYTHON INCLUDE': 2, 'CODE TO': 2, 'WILL BE': 2, 'FOR IT': 2, 'WERE EXPEDITED': 2, 'SECURITY ISSUES': 2, 'OF MANY': 2, 'OF NOVEMBER': 2, 'NOVEMBER UPDATE': 2, 'PROGRAM EXECUTION': 2, 'PHILOSOPHY AND': 2, 'PROGRAMMING AND': 2, 'METAPROGRAMMING AND': 2, 'USES DYNAMIC': 2, 'TYPING AND': 2, 'IT USES': 2, 'METHOD AND': 2, 'VARIABLE NAMES': 2, 'PROGRAMMING IN': 2, 'AND GENERATOR': 2, 'BORROWED FROM': 2, 'HASKELL AND': 2, 'THE DOCUMENT': 2, 'THE ZEN': 2, 'ZEN OF': 2, 'ALL OF': 2, 'WAS DESIGNED': 2, 'DESIGNED TO': 2, 'LANGUAGE WITH': 2, 'IN THEIR': 2, 'THERE IS': 2, 'IS MORE': 2, 'WAY TO': 2, 'DO IT': 2, 'PYTHON BOOK': 2, 'TO DESCRIBE': 2, 'SOMETHING AS': 2, 'PYTHON CULTURE': 2, \"PYTHON'S DEVELOPERS\": 2, 'TO AVOID': 2, 'PARTS OF': 2, 'THE CPYTHON': 2, 'CPYTHON REFERENCE': 2, 'PYPY A': 2, 'JUST-IN-TIME COMPILER': 2, 'ALSO AVAILABLE': 2, 'TO USE': 2, 'THE BRITISH': 2, 'BRITISH COMEDY': 2, 'COMEDY GROUP': 2, 'GROUP MONTY': 2, 'SPAM AND': 2, 'AND EGGS': 2, 'A REFERENCE': 2, 'REFERENCE TO': 2, 'INSTEAD OF': 2, 'FOO AND': 2, 'AND BAR': 2, 'A COMMON': 2, 'A WIDE': 2, 'WIDE RANGE': 2, 'RANGE OF': 2, 'RELATED TO': 2, 'TO PROGRAM': 2, 'LIKE A': 2, 'A ROUGH': 2, 'LANGUAGE IS': 2, 'ARTICLE PYTHON': 2, 'LANGUAGES USE': 2, 'IT DOES': 2, 'NOT USE': 2, 'CURLY BRACKETS': 2, 'TO DELIMIT': 2, 'DELIMIT BLOCKS': 2, 'BLOCKS AND': 2, 'THAN OR': 2, 'IN INDENTATION': 2, 'THE END': 2, 'SOME OTHER': 2, 'BUT IN': 2, 'CONTROL FLOW': 2, 'THE ASSIGNMENT': 2, 'FOR STATEMENT': 2, 'AN ITERABLE': 2, 'ITERABLE OBJECT': 2, 'EACH ELEMENT': 2, 'FOR USE': 2, 'BLOCK THE': 2, 'WHICH EXECUTES': 2, 'AS ITS': 2, 'IS TRUE': 2, 'HANDLED BY': 2, 'IS ALWAYS': 2, 'RAISE STATEMENT': 2, 'A SPECIFIED': 2, 'CODE AND': 2, 'CLASS FOR': 2, 'USE IN': 2, 'A FUNCTION': 2, 'FUNCTION OR': 2, 'OR METHOD': 2, 'BEFORE IT': 2, 'THE NEXT': 2, 'THE REFERENCE': 2, 'IF THE': 2, 'THE VARIABLE': 2, 'RETURNS A': 2, 'VALUE FROM': 2, 'GENERATOR FUNCTION': 2, 'FUNCTION AND': 2, 'A VARIABLE': 2, 'NAME IS': 2, 'A TYPE': 2, 'NOT SUPPORT': 2, 'FROM PYTHON': 2, 'THE BEHAVIOR': 2, 'BEHAVIOR OF': 2, 'OF DIVISION': 2, 'DIVISION OR': 2, 'INTEGER DIVISION': 2, 'DIVISION AND': 2, 'FOR EXPONENTIATION': 2, 'OF TIMES': 2, 'AS NUMPY': 2, 'THE SYNTAX': 2, 'OPERATOR WAS': 2, 'WAS INTRODUCED': 2, 'IT ASSIGNS': 2, 'VALUES TO': 2, 'AS PART': 2, 'EXAMPLE A': 2, 'OR AND': 2, 'AND NOT': 2, 'EXPRESSION CALLED': 2, 'CALLED A': 2, 'ANONYMOUS FUNCTIONS': 2, 'LAMBDA EXPRESSIONS': 2, 'ARE WRITTEN': 2, 'DIFFERENT IN': 2, 'TO MANY': 2, 'PYTHON MAKES': 2, 'A DISTINCTION': 2, 'DISTINCTION BETWEEN': 2, 'AS ARE': 2, 'KEYS OF': 2, 'OF DICTIONARIES': 2, 'KEYS MUST': 2, 'MUST BE': 2, 'ARE IMMUTABLE': 2, 'IS THEN': 2, 'NATURE OF': 2, 'PYTHON FEATURES': 2, 'SIDE OF': 2, 'THE EQUAL': 2, 'EQUAL SIGN': 2, 'STRINGS IN': 2, 'INTEGERS AND': 2, 'STRING LITERALS': 2, 'SINGLE OR': 2, 'OR DOUBLE': 2, 'SHELLS PERL': 2, 'AS AN': 2, 'STRING INTERPOLATION': 2, 'BEGINNING AND': 2, 'AND ENDING': 2, 'ENDING WITH': 2, 'REGULAR EXPRESSIONS': 2, 'OR A': 2, 'INDEXES ARE': 2, 'INCLUDING THE': 2, 'THE THIRD': 2, 'BE A': 2, 'AND OTHER': 2, 'HAS THE': 2, 'CAUSES A': 2, 'PYTHON ALSO': 2, 'OFTEN CALLED': 2, 'ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS': 2, 'AND HAS': 2, 'NOT CHECKED': 2, 'AN OBJECT': 2, 'IS STRONGLY': 2, 'STRONGLY TYPED': 2, 'PYTHON ALLOWS': 2, 'INSTANCES OF': 2, 'OF CLASSES': 2, 'CLASSES ARE': 2, 'ARE CONSTRUCTED': 2, 'BEFORE VERSION': 2, 'USING THE': 2, 'CURRENT PYTHON': 2, 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1, 'STATXACT SYSTAT': 1, 'SYSTAT THE': 1, 'THE UNSCRAMBLER': 1, 'UNSCRAMBLER UNISTAT': 1, 'UNISTAT EXCEL': 1, 'EXCEL ADD-ONS': 1, 'ADD-ONS ANALYSE-IT': 1, 'ANALYSE-IT UNISTAT': 1, 'UNISTAT FOR': 1, 'FOR EXCEL': 1, 'EXCEL XLFIT': 1, 'XLFIT REXCEL': 1, 'REXCEL CATEGORY': 1, 'CATEGORY COMPARISON': 1, 'COMPARISON VTENUMERICAL-ANALYSIS': 1, 'VTENUMERICAL-ANALYSIS SOFTWAREFREE': 1, 'SOFTWAREFREE ADVANCED': 1, 'ADVANCED SIMULATION': 1, 'SIMULATION LIBRARY': 1, 'LIBRARY ADMB': 1, 'ADMB CHAPEL': 1, 'CHAPEL EULER': 1, 'EULER FORTRESS': 1, 'FORTRESS FREEFEM': 1, 'FREEFEM FREEMAT': 1, 'FREEMAT GENIUS': 1, 'GENIUS GMSH': 1, 'GMSH GNU': 1, 'OCTAVE GRETL': 1, 'GRETL JULIA': 1, 'PYTHON IPYTHON': 1, 'IPYTHON MFEM': 1, 'MFEM OPENFOAM': 1, 'OPENFOAM PYTHON': 1, 'PYTHON SAGEMATH': 1, 'SAGEMATH SALOME': 1, 'SALOME SCICOSLAB': 1, 'SCICOSLAB SCILAB': 1, 'SCILAB WEKA': 1, 'WEKA PROPRIETARY': 1, 'PROPRIETARY DADISP': 1, 'DADISP FEATOOL': 1, 'FEATOOL MULTIPHYSICS': 1, 'MULTIPHYSICS GAUSS': 1, 'GAUSS LABVIEW': 1, 'LABVIEW MAPLE': 1, 'MATLAB SPEAKEASY': 1, 'SPEAKEASY VISSIM': 1, 'VISSIM COMPARISON': 1, 'COMPARISON AUTHORITY': 1, 'AUTHORITY CONTROL': 1, 'CONTROL NATIONAL': 1, 'NATIONAL LIBRARIES': 1, 'LIBRARIES FRANCE': 1, 'FRANCE DATA': 1, 'DATA GERMANY': 1, 'GERMANY ISRAEL': 1, 'ISRAEL UNITED': 1, 'UNITED STATES': 1, 'STATES CZECH': 1, 'CZECH REPUBLIC': 1, 'REPUBLIC OTHER': 1, 'OTHER FAST': 1, 'FAST SUDOC': 1, 'SUDOC FRANCE': 1, 'FRANCE RETRIEVED': 1, 'RETRIEVED FROM': 1, 'FROM HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/W/INDEX.PHP?TITLE=PYTHON_(PROGRAMMING_LANGUAGE)&OLDID': 1})\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(getNgrams(content, 2))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  }
 ],
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  "kernelspec": {
   "display_name": "Python 3 (ipykernel)",
   "language": "python",
   "name": "python3"
  },
  "language_info": {
   "codemirror_mode": {
    "name": "ipython",
    "version": 3
   },
   "file_extension": ".py",
   "mimetype": "text/x-python",
   "name": "python",
   "nbconvert_exporter": "python",
   "pygments_lexer": "ipython3",
   "version": "3.10.13"
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}
